ANATOMY OF THE LYMPHATIC
SYSTEM
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MYTHOS ANATOMY
Lymphatic System
The
lymphatic system is not really a separate system of the body. It is
considered part of the circulatory
system since it consists of lymph,
a moving fluid that comes from the blood
and returns to the blood
by way of the lymphatic vessels. Lymph
carries some nutrients around the body, especially fat. It also
distributes germ-fighting
white cells. Lymph
resembles plasma,
but is more diluted and contains only about 5% of proteins and 1% of salts and extractives.
It is formed from bits of blood
and other body liquids, called interstitial fluid or tissue
fluid, that collect in the spaces between cells. Some of the
interstitial fluid goes back into the body through the capillary membrane,
but most enters the lymphatic capillaries
to become lymph.
Along with this interstitial fluid, the lymph
also picks up any particles that are too big to be absorbed through the
capillary membrane.
These include cell
debris, fat globules, and tiny protein
particles. The lymph
then moves into the larger lymphatic vessels and through the lymph nodes and eventually enters the blood through the veins
in the neck
region. The lymphatic system is thus a secondary transport system. Lymph
has no pump of its own. Its flow depends on pressure from the blood system and the massaging effect of
the muscles.
Axillary Lymph Nodes
The
axillary lymph
glands are located in the armpit. They are divided into two
sets: superficial and deep. These lymph nodes receive lymph
from the vessels of the arm
and the upper nodes receive lymph
from vessels in the upper chest area near the pectoralis muscles (pectoralis major and pectoralis minor muscles) and the mammary
glands. There are about 35 lymph nodes in the breast and armpit area. Most of the lymph nodes are located in or near the
armpit. If cancer
forms in the breast
area it often spreads to the nodes because the lymph,
along with other debris, can carry cancerous cells. Lymph
flows in all directions, but about three-quarters of lymphatic vessels
in the breast
empty into the axillary
nodes, which often become the first site of the cancer
spread beyond the breast.Cervical Lymph Nodes
The
cervical lymph nodes are located in the neck. They are divided into two sets: superficial and deep. There are three
sets of superficial
lymph glands: the submaxillary, near the
jaw, the suprahyoid, near the hyoid bone
in the throat,
and the cervical which are located along the course of the external jugular vein. The deep cervical glands are large glands
that are situated near the pharynx,
esophagus, and trachea.
When you have a sore throat,
white blood cells mass together in these nodes
to fight the infection,
which is why your throat
will often feel swollen and tender.
Inguinal Lymph Nodes
The
network of lymph
vessels in the lower body passes lymph
into the bean-sized inguinal
nodes deep in the groin.
The inguinal lymph
nodes can be grouped as superficial
and deep. The deep inguinal
lymph nodes are situated near the femoral artery
and vein. They recieve lymph
from the lower limbs, external genitalia, and lower anterior abdominal
wall. The superficial
inguinal lymph
nodes can be found along the greater saphenous vein. The recieve lymph
from the external genitalia, and the superficial
parts of the lower limbs.
Lymph Duct
The
lymphatic duct is much shorter than the thoracic
duct, only about 1/2 of an inch (1 centimeter) long. It
receives lymph
from right side of body above the liver
and empties into right subclavian
vein and internal
jugular vein. Together with the thoracic, these ducts empty
between 4 and 10 milliliters of lymph
into the blood
every minute.
Lymph Nodes
Lymph nodes, or lymph
glands as they are sometimes called, are small oval
structures normally the size of small kidney beans. They generally are
located in clusters near veins
at strategic points along medium-sized lymph
vessels at the knee, elbow, armpit, groin,
neck, abdomen
and chest. Blood
is cleaned and filtered in the lymph
nodes, and germ
fighting cells gather there during illness. This filtration
process
prevents bacteria,
cancer cells, and other infectious
agents from entering the blood
and circulating through the system. The lymph
nodes are the centers for production and storage of some of
the white blood
cells, namely the lymphocytes
and monocytes, which are important elements
of the body's immune mechanism. During any kind of infection,
the nodes enlarge in their area of drainage due to the multiplication
of lymphocytes in the node.
Popliteal Nodes
The
small popliteal lymph
nodes are four or five in number and surround the popliteal veins and arteries. They are
clustered at the back part of the leg
behind the knee joint.
They help collect excess fluids from your feet and legs.
Spleen
The
spleen is closely associated to both the
circulatory and the lymphatic systems. It is an abdominal organ
which lies between the bottom of the stomach
and the diaphragm.
It plays a role in the maintenance of blood
volume, production of some types of blood
cells, and recovery of material from worn out red blood cells. It is also involved in the
removal of blood
cells and bacteria
from the blood.
Subclavian Vein (Left)
The
subclavian vein is a continuation of the axillary vein
(vein of the armpit) from the upper arm. A branch of the subclavian vein (right and left) extends
from each arm.
The vein then converges and extends from the
first rib to the clavicle
(collar bone),
where it merges with the internal
jugular vein to form the innominate. The subclavian veins are also important to
the lymphatic system as a means of introcucing lymph
back into the blood.
The thoracic duct, which carries lymph,
joins the left subclavian near the junction with the internal jugular vein. The lymphatic duct
carries lymph
to the right subclavian
vein and also joins it near the junction with the internal jugular vein.
Subclavian Vein (Right)
The
subclavian vein is a continuation of the axillary vein
(vein of the armpit) from the upper arm. A branch of the subclavian vein (right and left) extends
from each arm.
The vein then converges and extends from the
first rib to the clavicle
(collar bone),
where it merges with the internal
jugular vein to form the innominate. The subclavian veins are also important to
the lymphatic system as a means of introcucing lymph
back into the blood.
The thoracic duct, which carries lymph,
joins the left subclavian near the junction with the internal jugular vein. The lymphatic duct
carries lymph
to the right subclavian
vein and also joins it near the junction with the internal jugular vein.
Thoracic Duct
The
thoracic duct is the channel for the
collection of lymph
from the portion of the body below the diaphragm
and from the left side of the body above the diaphragm.
It is a long duct, approximately 16 inches (40 centimeters) in the
average adult. It extends from the lower spine
(2nd lumbar vertebrae)
to the left subclavian
vein where it drains. The thoracic
duct and the lymphatic duct, together, empty between 4 to 10
milliliters of lymph
into the blood
every minute
Thymus
Overlying
the heart, the twin lobed thymus consists largely of developing lymphocytes. The thymus
gland
influences the activities of lymphoctyes in the spleen
and lymph glands. The thymus
produces a hormone
which stimulates antibody
production in the lymphoid tissue.
Lymph
carries white blood
cells to this organ,
where they multiply and change into special infection-fighting
cells. After puberty,
the thymus begins to shrink in size. Its role
in the early years of life is not fully understood. It is believed it
is important in the development
of immunity.
The Immune System
The
human body is continually exposed to disease
producing organisms, called pathogens, and other harmful substances in
the environment. Your immune
system is your body's personal defense against these harmful
invaders. The body's ability to counteract the effects of pathogens and
other harmful agents is called resistance
and it is dependent on a variety of defense mechanisms. Your immune
system is made up of billions of special cells called white blood cells, lymphocytes,
unique proteins
called antibodies,
chemicals that mediate immune response, and special organs that
replenish and integrate the whole immune process.
All of these defense mechanism must act together and are designed to
react rapidly to provide protection against disease-producing
organisms and their toxins. There are two aspects of the immune system's response to disease:
innate and acquired. Natural, or innate, immunity is present from birth
and is the first line of defense against the vast majority of infectious
agents. Innate immunity involves barriers that keep harmful material
from entering your body. Your skin
provides an impenetrable barrier. The eyes
use fluids, such as tears,
and the presence of enzymes, such as lysozyme,
that destroy bacteria.
The respiratory system utilizes cilia,
mucus, and coughing to get rid of foreign materials. If infection-causing
organisms gets past these defenses, the body produces fever, inflammation,
and other reactions designed to conquer the unwelcome invader. Inflammation
causes an increase in the local blood
supply so that large numbers of white blood
cells can be brought to the area to fight the infection.
Some of these white blood
cells are phagocytes and macrophages that literally eat the invading
microorganism. In most cases of minor infection,
these cells solve the problem. If the pathogen
succeeds in passing this barrier, a more complex process,
involving other cells of the
immune system, is necessary. To understand this process,
lets examine what happens when a virus enters the body. When a virus
enters your body an immune response begins automatically. A scavenger macrophage
will eat the virus and display the viral antigen
on its surface. Anything that can trigger an immune response is called
an antigen.
An antigen
can be a germ
such as a virus, or even a part of a virus. Other white blood cells in your body called "helper T-cells"
will see the viral antigen
and produce toxins that will destroy it. The helper T-cells
then send chemical messages that activate lymphocytes
called B-cells
which make antibodies
that recognize the viral antigen.
These cells "remember" the specific disease
organism and divide into many more cells. The resulting "clone" of
identical cells starts producing very large numbers of antibodies that bind to all the organisms
of that disease
and destroy them. This process
is called acquired immunity. It is a learning process
of the immune system that develops either
through exposure to invading microorganisms or as a result of immunization. It is estimated that your
body has more than 100 million different kinds of antibodies, each one custom-built to
identify a particular pathogen.
If your body is exposed a second time, no symptoms occur because the
organism is destroyed quickly- you are now immune to that particular pathogen.
Pharyngeal Tonsil (Adenoids)
The
pharyngeal tonsils (tonsilla pharyngea), also known as adenoids,
are a collection of lymphoid nodules located along the roof and posterior wall of the nasopharynx (upper throat). They vary in size in different
individuals and are a part of the body's protection against infection.
The tonsils contain germ-killing
cells. The pharyngeal tonsil is sometimes referred to as Luschka's
tonsil, after the German anatomist Hubert Luschka (1820-1875). When the
pharyngeal tonsils become infected, they become inflamed and enlarge.
The palatine tonsils and pharyngeal tonsils (adenoids)
are two pairs of organs that seem to give more trouble than service to
the body.
Palatine Tonsil
Two
prominent, rounded bodies of lymphatic tissue,
the palatine tonsils (tonsilla palatina), are
located on each side of the tongue
at the back of the mouth
in the pharynx
(throat). They lie beneath the mucous membrane lining mouth and are closely associated with the
soft palate (roof of the mouth). They vary in size in different
individuals and are a small part of the body's protection against infection.
The tonsils are composed of lymphoid tissue,
which contains germ-killing
cells. When they become infected, they become inflamed in a condition
known as tonsillitis. The tonsils and adenoids
(also located in the pharynx)
are two pairs of organs that seem to give more trouble than service to
the body.
Lingual Tonsil
The
lingual tonsils (tonsilla lingualis) are
a pair of oval-shaped organs located at the back of the tongue behind the foramen
cecum and the sulcus
terminalis in the mucous
membrane covering the tongue.
They enlarge gradually from birth to about seven years of age and then
shrinks. Each oval consists of a large number of lymphoid follicles.
The lingual tonsils are part of the lymphatic
system and are important to the body's defense against infection.
They are composed of lymphoid tissue,
which contains germ-killing
cells. The tonsils help protect against upper respiratory
tract infection.
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